大魚進化中

這篇研究主要是討論遠距離教學之情感因素的重要性，著重在學習動機，溝通模式，和道德倫理，

ARCS被設計為使用於傳統、認知領域的教學設計模型。

ARCS模式的四個要素縮寫是：注意、相關性、自信、滿足。

Attention  注意

剛開始時，可能會比較容易吸引學生的注意力，但維持整個課程是困難的。在無聊和活躍之間保持一個平衡點，長時間維持學員的注意力是課程設計者的目標。
為了得到注意力和保持不固定的使用方式而使用某些策略，例如：介紹明顯矛盾的公認理論或扮演「魔鬼」代言人的角色。
其它的注意策略可能包括不同的速度或樣式編排課程內容，使用幽默、規劃學生可以參與的活動，如模擬或遊戲。

Relevance  相關性

在ARCS模型中「R」代表相關性，為成人學習者特別重要的動機，優先順序，如：事業或家庭，使他花費部份時間於學習。技能知識成長透過教育或被視為課堂環境之外的練習。
加涅（1968）表示，這是需要學習者意識到其教學活動「富有極大的意義」。一個遠距離教學課程設計，強調學習者的經驗或學習者的未來目標相關性。為此科目塑造熱忱也建立其相關性的認知。「這務必要重視，我的講師肯定興奮！」相反，缺乏理解其相關性，學習者的動機會明顯減少。

Confidence自信

在凱勒的模型中，建立學習者信心是第三個考慮的動機，也許，最重要的是遠距離教學四個要素。學習者對於成功使用遠距離環境往往缺乏信心（瓦格納＆里德爾，1990年），更為嚴重的是，許多遠距離教學的學生都是成年人，並且都沒有足夠的時間學習。
計劃「成功機會」，為建立自信的一個有用策略。
設計一個活動時，學習者有可能取得成功，但是這需要一些努力。（如果任務過於簡單，學生們將會把他們的成功視為的「容易的任務」或「僥倖」和都將失去效果。）其他增加學生信心的策略，包括幫助學生為自己樹立現實的目標，提供明確和具體標準進行評估，將成功歸因於努力學習並給予回饋。「在這個任務中可以看出你的辛勤努力-做的好！」或「這些答案顯示出極高的洞察力，很顯然你已經仔細閱讀過了。」

Satisfaction滿足

「滿足」，對於達成教學目標感覺良好，是最後一個ARCS系統動機。
當成功得到的獎賞是令人嚮往的，學習者感到滿足（凱勒，1987）。
至少可以使遠距離學習者覺得可適當的控制他們的學習經驗，承擔更大的責任，同時要求自身的學習，也更可能帶給學習者滿足的感覺（摩爾，1977）。
為了提高學習者滿足的機會，設計者應提供讓新技術可使用的活動與環境。
提供彈性的教學方案供選擇，對於目標、學習方法、或評估，可以增加學習者的優越感(控制感?)。
提供外在的獎勵和口頭上加強學生本身自豪的情感，也將加強學習者的滿意度。
ARCS模型提供系統結構設計師關心教學方面的動機。在遠距離學習中，注意、相關性、自信、滿足，可能決定一個學生是否能成功地完成一門課程，這些因素被視為在設計時需要週密考慮的一個部分。

OMMUNICATION PATTERNS 溝通模式

不容爭辯，在學習中溝通是重要的，但在遠距離學習中又是特別重要。霍爾姆貝格（1983）描述遠距離學習為一個「引導教學的談話」，並強調遠距離學習方案（媒體，分配，文字）主要應促進雙向溝通。有幾個重要的不同溝通模式在遠距離學習課程與傳統課堂之間。由於中間的溝通，口頭聯繫是時常的，但似乎感覺是冷淡的（克羅普利和卡爾，1983年）。從這個意義上講，形式上傾向於抑制自發性，使小組討論和其他學習活動難以實施成功。另一個主要區別是，遠距離學習環境可能缺少非語言暗示。當面對面學習時，提高的眉毛、一個微笑或困惑的表情，皆表達了重要的信息。最後，學生於遠距離學習，脫離了大型的學習組織，可能會錯過非正式討論，造成較低的社會參與（丹尼爾和侯爵，1984年;西沃特，1984年）。各個距離傳送特性創造溝通模式，不同於那些熟悉的學習環境，並且需要週密的策略促進一個「引導教學的談話」。也許最明顯的促進互動策略，是要求學習者利用一切可用的通訊媒介積極參與活動。一些例子包括音頻(使用麥克風)會議進行期間，所有的學生參與討論，或設置的「電話辦公時間」期間學生可以（預約）通話。如果旅行距離不是不合理的，偶爾可為學生舉辦更多的學習小組活動（研討會，會議）。在設計任何遠距離教學系統，溝通，特別是學生發起的，不能被視為理所當然。

ETHICS道德倫理

遠距離教學設計師的第三個情感考量是道德倫理。對於長遠的遠距離教學，成功建立道德意識和感覺（舉例：認識到自己的行動可能影響他人的福利）的教育工作重要的是。在下面的討論中，道德倫理問題將考慮，沒有正確的答案。三個領域的道德行為：營銷計劃，學生的入學和材料準備。
第一個議題，市場營銷，可以重視的任何新方案、產品或服務。要考慮的問題是，「經由突出自身的優勢和輕鬆帶過缺點，來努力”賣” 遠距離教學給潛在的學生？」換句話說，如果遠距離教學方案，銷售以「讓買方謹慎」的態度？ （里德和祙子，1990年）。
第二個議題是有關學生的入學。遠程教育方案往往連結「開放學習」的系統，其中要允許誰的入場誰申請。假如教育工作者知道（或強烈懷疑）如同學習者自我目標或學習動機，是否有義務勸阻未出現這些特點的學生入學？ （陸國際律師事務所，1990年;里德和祙子，1990年）到什麼程度，如果有的話，應該是教育工作者負責評估潛在的心理準備遠程教育學生？
最後的倫理議題為適當的教材編寫。傳統的學校設置，各種教育資源與課程有關的內容可以在圖書館或媒體中心中找到。偏遠地點的學生可能無法輕易的獲得這些訊息。如果教育工作者有責任使用各種資源反映不同的觀點，偏遠地點的學生是否有機會了解這些觀點？ （里德和祙子，1990年）
營銷計劃，學生的入學和材料準備這些問題可能沒有正確的答案，但答案是根據方案計劃，這可能會影響學習者是否成功。對於任何類型的教育事業，道德倫理問題都是重要的，在遠程教育，排除未知的情境反應和考量應得的公平。

SUMMARY總結

遠距離教學計劃於學習環境，身體和心理，挑戰我們最基本的「學校模式」，需要一個新的角度就我們所知道的教學和學習過程。傳統教育並不一定好或差於遠距離教學，但學生知道如何「做」傳統的教學。如果設計師開始開拓更廣闊，更全面的觀察教學計劃包括情感因素，學習者更容易處理不熟悉遠距離教育，並學習「做」。

Effective Affective Design for Distance Education

by Susan M. Zvacek

When designing instruction for distance education, attention is often focused on the cognitive domain, as it is in "traditional" (face-to-face) instruction. What do the students need to know? Which instructional strategies will be most appropriate? Upon what performance criteria will learners be evaluated? These are crucial issues, deserving of a designer's best efforts.

Unfortunately, affective domain considerations are often completely ignored or, at best, treated as afterthoughts in the design process. Martin and Briggs (1986) acknowledged that '. . . affective behaviors are difficult to conceptualize and to evaluate. Because of this, the most effort and time have gone into thinking about, studying, evaluating, and teaching the cognitive aspects of behavior.' This phenomenon has serious implications in distance education programs. Distant students are confronted with learning situations very different from the 'traditional' schooling with which they are familiar, and the astute designer will recognize the need to explore aspects of instruction beyond the cognitive domain. This article will discuss the importance of affective considerations to distance education, focusing on learner motivation, communication patterns, and ethics.

MOTIVATION

The relationship between motivation and learning is not easily examined or quantified and a review of past research in this area reveals confusing and, often, contradictory results (Clark & Salomon, 1986). Experienced teachers and trainers, however, would probably agree with Wlodkowski (1985) that '. . . when motivation to learn is very low, it is generally safe to assume that potential learning achievement will to some extent be diminished.' The role of motivation in distance education cannot be overstated. While educators might hope that all of their students are motivated, this attribute could easily be classified as a course prerequisite for distant learners. The standard motivating forces active in 'traditional' classrooms such as group pressure, a familiar learning situation, and social factors are often absent in distance education settings. Without these characteristics as givens, planners of distance education programs must build their awareness of motivational strategies and purposefully integrate methods to enhance learner motivation.
Keller (1987) addressed the systematic development and use of motivational instruction with the ARCS model. ARCS was designed to be used in conjunction with traditional, cognitive domain instructional design models. The four components of the ARCS mode acronym are: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.

Attention

Student attention may be fairly easy to catch, initially, but difficult to sustain over an entire course. Maintaining a balance point between boredom and hyperactivity at which learners are aroused and involved should be the designer's goal. Some strategies for gaining attention and holding it involve the use of incongruity, e.g., presenting evidence contradictory to an accepted theory or playing the role of 'devil's advocate.' Other attention strategies might include varying the pace or style of presentation of the course material, using humor, and planning activities that require student participation, such as simulations or games.

Relevance

Relevance, the 'R' in the ARCS model, is especially important in motivating adult learners, since competing priorities, such as careers or families, reduce the amount of time available for learning. Skills an information gained through education or training must be perceived as usable beyond the classroom setting. Gagne (1968) expressed this as the need for learners to be aware of the 'larger meaningful context' of instructional events. A distance education designer emphasizes course relevance by relating the content to learner experiences or the learner's future goals. Modelling enthusiasm for the subject matter also builds awareness of relevance. 'This must be important; my instructor sure is excited about it!' Conversely, lack of perceived relevance may significantly reduce learner motivation.

Confidence

Building learner confidence is the third motivational consideration in Keller's model and is, perhaps, the most important to distance education of the four components. Learners in distant settings often lack confidence that they have what it takes to succeed in a non-traditional setting (Wagner & Riddle, 1990) and this may be compounded by the fact that many distance education students are adults who are not in school full-time, or are newly returned to formal education, and have lost faith in their academic abilities. A useful strategy for confidence-building is to plan for 'success opportunities' early on in the program. Design an activity at which students are likely to succeed, but that requires some effort. (If assignments are too simple, students will then attribute their success to the 'easy assignment' or 'luck' and the effect will be lost.) Other strategies for increasing student confidence include helping students to set realistic goals for themselves, providing clear and specific criteria for evaluation, and attributing success to learner effort when giving feedback. 'Your hard work really shows in this assignment - good job!' or 'These answers show a great deal of insight; it's clear you've been reading very carefully.'

Satisfaction

Satisfaction, feeling good about accomplishing instructional goals, is the final motivational component of the ARCS model. Learners feel satisfaction when success is rewarded intrinsically in cases where the learning is in itself desirable, and extrinsically when tasks are less interesting (Keller, 1987). Distant students who feel at least moderately in control of their learning experiences, and concomitantly assume greater responsibility for their own learning, are also more likely to have feelings of satisfaction (Moore, 1977). To increase the chances of learner satisfaction, designers should provide activities that allow new skills to be used in realistic settings; transfer of learning is intrinsically motivating. Flexibility an choice within the instructional program by providing options for objectives, study methods, and/or evaluation, can increase the learner's sense of control. Providing extrinsic rewards for progress and verbally reinforcing students' intrinsic feelings of pride will also strengthen learner satisfaction.
The ARCS model provides structure for designers concerned about the motivational aspects of instruction. In distance education, the components of attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction may determine whether a student successfully completes a course, and these factors need to be considered as part of the development process.

COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

That communication is important to learning is an inarguable point, but its role in distance education is especially critical. Holmberg (1983) described distance education as a 'guided didactic conversation' and emphasized the idea that the components of a distance education program (media, assignments, texts) should primarily facilitate two-way communication.
There are several important differences between the classroom communication patterns of distance education and its traditional counterpart. One of these is that, because of the mediated nature of the communication, verbal contact is often highly structured and may seem impersonal (Cropley & Kahl, 1983). This sense of formality tends to suppress spontaneity and make group discussions and other learning activities difficult to implement successfully. Another major difference is that nonverbal cues may be absent from the distance learning setting. A raised eyebrow, a smile, or a puzzled expression all carry important messages when learning occurs face-to-face. Finally, students learning in remote sites, separated from the larger learning group, may miss out on informal discussions as a result of low social involvement (Daniel & Marquis, 1984; Sewart, 1984). Each of these distance delivery characteristics creates communication patterns unlike those found in more familiar learning settings and requires deliberate strategies for facilitating a 'guided didactic conversation.'
Perhaps the most obvious strategy for facilitating interaction is to incorporate activities that require learners to actively participate, using whatever communications media are available. Some examples would include conducting audioconferences during which all of the students participate in discussions, or setting 'telephone office hours' during which students can (and may be expected to) call. Occasional group activities (seminars, meetings) can be held for students to feel more a part of the learning group, if the travel distance is not unreasonable. In designing instruction for any distance education system, communication, especially that initiated by learners, cannot be taken for granted.

ETHICS

A third affective consideration for designers of distance education is ethics. Building ethical awareness and sensitivity (i.e., understanding that one's actions can affect the welfare of others) among educators is important for the long-term success of distance education. In the following discussion, ethical questions for consideration will be given; there are no right answers.
Three areas of ethical behavior will be addressed: marketing programs, admission of students, and materials preparation. The first issue, marketing, could concern any new program, product, or service. The question to be considered is, "Are efforts to 'sell' distance education by highlighting its advantages and downplaying any disadvantages fair to potential students?" In other words, should distance education programs be marketed with a 'let the buyer beware' attitude? (Reed & Sork, 1990).
The second issue is related to the admission of students. Distance education programs are often linked to 'open learning' systems, in which admission is granted to all who apply. If, however, educators know (or strongly suspect) that attributes such as learner self-directedness or a high degree of motivation is necessary for success, should they be obligated to discourage students from enrolling who do not exhibit those characteristics? (Ehrman, 1990; Reed & Sork, 1990) To what degree, if any, should educators be responsible for assessing the psychological readiness of potential distance education students?
The preparation of appropriate instructional materials is the final ethical issue for consideration. In a traditional school setting, a variety of educational resources related to the course content can be found in a library or media center. This may not be the case for students in remote sites who do not have easy access to information. Should educators be obligated to use materials that reflect a variety of viewpoints, since distant learners may not have to opportunity to discover these competing perspectives on their own? (Reed & Sork, 1990)
These questions regarding ethics in marketing, admission of students, and instructional materials may not have right answers, but the answers that are conveyed based on program standards may influence a learner's success. Ethical issues are important in any type of educational endeavor; in distance education, the situational unknowns preclude stock responses and deserve fair consideration.

SUMMARY

The learning environment, physical and psychological, in distance education programs challenges our most basic 'school schemata' and requires a new perspective on what we know about teaching and learning processes. Traditional education isn't necessarily better or worse than distance education, but students know how to 'do' traditional school. If designers begin to develop a broader, more holistic view of instructional planning to include affective considerations, learners will more easily deal with the unfamiliar and learn to 'do' distance education, too.

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